The Big Questions

• Why is the period that followed the Maurya empire sometimes called the ‘Age of Reorganisation’?
• What were the values or principles that guided emperors of that period?
• How did foreign invaders assimilate into Indian society and contribute to cultural confluence?

The Age of Reorganisation Begins

• Very little is known about Aśhoka‘s successors to the throne.
• It is generally accepted that the last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief, Puṣhyamitra Śhunga.
• This led to the breakup of the empire — hardly half a century after Aśhoka.
• Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent — often earlier tributary kingdoms under Maurya overlordship.
• The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent.
• The period is called the ‘age of reorganisation’ because existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms constantly competing to become powerful.
• The map of India changed significantly in that age, as did people’s lives.

How the new kingdoms competed

• Peaceful method: matrimonial alliances between neighbouring kingdoms.
• Forceful method: warfare.
• There was constant wrestling for control over border areas, since holding them kept the kingdom safe from attacks.
• Alongside politics there was a burst in art, architecture and literature, with enriching cultural exchanges.

Prominent dynasties of the Subcontinent

Surge of the Śhungas

• Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, ruling over parts of north and central India.
• He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler.
• His empire was smaller than the Maurya Empire, but he kept it safe from potential invaders.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Greeks, after some initial military campaign against them.
• The empire did not last long — a century after him, it was gone.
• The period witnessed a revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought continued to flourish.

Literature and art under the Śhungas

• Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works.
• The Yoga Sūtras were compiled by Patañjali during this period.
• The Śhungas patronised literature, art and architecture.
• The Bharhut Stūpa (present-day Madhya Pradesh) presents beautiful examples of Śhunga art.
• It was probably built during Aśhoka’s time, but the Śhungas added carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s life.
• These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.

The Sātavāhanas

• The Śhungas seem to have waged wars with neighbouring regions — possibly including the Sātavāhanas.
• They ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Śhunga Empire.
• Sometimes referred to as ‘Andhras’.
• Their empire largely comprised present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra.
• Capitals at different times — the most famous were Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan).
• Trade and commerce flourished in the Sātavāhana kingdom.

Coins, agriculture and trade

• Sātavāhana coins are found from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh — India’s western and eastern coasts.
• Many coins depicted ships, suggesting maritime trade was an important part of economic life.
• The type of ship shown suggests advanced shipbuilding and navigation technologies.
• Agriculture flourished in the Krishna–Godavari river system, giving economic stability.
• Trade networks reached as far as the Roman Empire.
• Exports: spices, textiles, sandalwood, gold-plated pearls, ivory. Imports: glass and perfumed ointments.
• Tolls and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.
• Economic prosperity and a peaceful political period helped literature, art and culture develop.

Life under the Sātavāhanas

• Princes were often named after their mothers.
• Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī.
• She was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved at Nāśhik.
• The Naneghat caves near Pune lay close to a major trade route — used for collecting tolls and taxes and as resting places for traders.
• Naneghat inscriptions describe a Sātavāhana widow queen who performed several Vedic rituals, including the aśhvamedha yajña.
• They mention Vedic gods Indra, Chandra and Sūrya.
• Her donations (dāna): land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins and other items to priests, guests, workers, scholars and monks.
• These inscriptions are in the Brahmi script and include early numerals — some resembling today’s shapes.
• This is evidence that modern numerals ultimately originated in India.

Faith, caves and decline

• The Sātavāhanas were devout followers of Vāsudeva (another name for Kṛiṣhṇa).
• They also patronised other schools of thought — granting tax-free agricultural land to Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks.
• The Karla caves (near Lonavala, Maharashtra) were made for Buddhist monks — magnificent pillars and a stone replica of a stūpa, all carved out of a rocky hillside.
• A yakṣha (a minor deity associated with nature) from the Pitalkhora caves carries the inscription kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāṭa — ‘made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith’.
• In the 3rd century CE the empire fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms.
• Main causes: weak central control and gradual economic decline.

Coming of the Chedis

• After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.
• Khāravela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower of Jain teachings.
• He was sometimes called bhikṣhu-rāja or monk-king — although he respected all schools of thought.
• Near Bhubaneswar, the Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves were likely developed for Jain monks.
• They feature intricate panels, statues and spacious rooms carved into the rock — notable examples of ‘rock-cut architecture’.

The Hāthīgumphā inscription

• Written in Brahmi script, found in one of the caves.
• It records King Khāravela’s accomplishments year after year — his victorious military campaigns and benevolent works for his people.
• Khāravela declares he created a ‘council of ascetics and sages’ from a hundred regions.
• He describes himself as “accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect and repairer of every temple”.
• A ruler taking pride in protecting all schools of thought is a fundamental part of the ‘Indian ethos’.

Kingdoms and Life in the South

• Between the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms rose to prominence — the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pāṇḍyas.
• They often competed with each other for control over the South, while contributing to the region’s growth in trade and culture.
• Aśhoka’s empire stopped at these south Indian kingdoms (he mentions them in his edicts) — so they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power.
• Khāravela claims he defeated an alliance of south Indian kings, but the battle’s location is unknown and he does not seem to have invaded the South.

The Sangam Age

• The period saw many poets whose works are collectively known as ‘Sangam literature’ — so the era is called the ‘Sangam Age’.
• Sangam comes from the Sanskrit sangha, meaning ‘association’ and ‘coming together’ — here, an assembly of poets.
• Sangam literature is the oldest in south India, consisting of several collections or anthologies of poems.
• Historians consult it heavily to investigate the society and culture of the times.
• Sangam poetry expresses personal emotions such as love, and societal values like heroism and generosity.

The Cholas

• The Sangams refer to three ‘crowned kings’ — the Cholas, Cheras and Pāṇḍyas.
• The Cholas ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.
• The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pāṇḍyas and established his supremacy.
• Karikāla undertook many projects for the people — among them the Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut, a complex water diversion system.
• It lies just downstream of Srirangam island and diverts water from the Kāveri to the central and southern parts of the Kāveri delta.
• It brought more land under cultivation, earning the area the name ‘rice bowl of the South’.
• Restored several times, it is still in use today, supporting irrigation for millions in Tamil Nadu.

The Cheras

• Also known as the Keralaputra — ‘sons of Kerala’.
• Ruled the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, capital at Vanji, present-day Karur.
• They shaped the region’s cultural and economic history, encouraging Tamil literature and patronising Sangam poets.
• Known for extensive trade with the Roman Empire and West Asia.
• The kingdom became a hub for the export of spices, timber, ivory and pearls.
• Chera kings issued coins bearing their royal emblem, the bow.

The Pāṇḍyas

• Ruled parts of Tamil Nadu and surrounding regions, capital at present-day Madurai; their rule goes back several centuries BCE.
• In his work Indika, Megasthenes mentions the kingdom as prosperous, with strong administration.
• Active trade with the Greeks and Romans, plus much internal trade.
• Khāravela states he received hundreds of pearls from the Pāṇḍya kingdom.
• They were an important naval power of the subcontinent.
• Later Pāṇḍyas contributed greatly to art, architecture and the region’s prosperity.
• Their inscriptions assert kings’ concern for their subjects’ welfare and encouragement to all schools of thought and belief.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

• The same period saw the arrival of invaders through the northwest frontier, who took control of the northwestern, northern and central regions.
• While retreating from the Indus plains, Alexander left satraps behind.
• Over time these regional rulers established independent domains and came to be known as ‘Indo-Greeks’.
• After the decline of the Mauryas, the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target.
• They arrived as conquerors but were much influenced by the rich local culture.
• This produced a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language and daily life.

The Heliodorus pillar

• Located near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh) — a notable example of these connections.
• Named after an Indo-Greek ambassador whose inscription praises Vāsudeva as the ‘god of gods’.
• The inscription also names three immortal precepts that lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness.

Indo-Greek coins

• Coins found in north India give most of the information we have about these rulers.
• Made of gold, silver, copper and nickel.
• Usually a king on one side and Greek deities on the other.
• But some coins instead depicted Indian deities — Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī.
• Indo-Greek rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas.

The Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas

• The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE.
• At its peak their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India.
• Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing with a profound impact on the subcontinent.
• Kaṇiṣhka — probably the most powerful Kuṣhāṇa ruler — encouraged art and culture when not on campaign, leading to new artistic styles.
• His famous ‘headless’ statue (1.85 m high) carries a Brahmi inscription: mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka — ‘The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kaṇiṣhka’.

Coins of Kaṇiṣhka

• First coin: Kaṇiṣhka holding a spear, titled ‘King of Kings’; the other side shows the Buddha with the inscription BOΔΔO in Greek script.
• Second coin: an emperor on one side and Śhiva with the bull Nandi on the other.
• Featuring both Buddha and Śhiva shows the ruler’s respect for multiple schools of thought.
• The Kuṣhāṇas controlled significant sections of the Silk Route — trade grew, connecting India with the rest of Asia and the West.

Gāndhāra and Mathurā Schools of Art

• Kuṣhāṇa art continued the trend set under the Indo-Greeks, celebrated for its fusion of Indian and Greek styles.
• Sculptures feature a variety of deities, reflecting the peaceful co-existence of various schools of thought.
• This era saw deities like Sūrya, the sun god, depicted to look more similar to humans.
• Religious art increased, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.

Cultural assimilation — the big picture

• Despite political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation.
• Styles interacted in art and architecture, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially Hindu and Buddhist).
• It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with the composition of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.
• The ‘Tapestry of the Past’ is not confined to any one kingdom or ruler — it is a dynamic process of interaction and assimilation over time.

Timeline of the Age

Master Questions — cover the whole chapter

Answer these six and you have revised every concept in the chapter.

Test Yourself — 25 Question Quiz