Chapter 5: Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

📚 Chapter Index

Universal Adult Franchise Bridging Barriers Suryodaya School Caselet Role of ECI Managing Elections Model Code of Conduct Lok Sabha Elections Rajya Sabha Election of President Challenges and Road Ahead Before We Move On Questions and Activities

🎯 Learning Objectives

  • Understand the meaning and importance of universal adult franchise in Indian democracy
  • Explain the role and structure of the Election Commission of India (ECI)
  • Describe the process of voting in Lok Sabha and state assembly elections
  • Distinguish between direct and indirect elections with examples
  • Explain how Rajya Sabha members, the President, and Vice President are elected
  • Understand the Model Code of Conduct and its importance for free and fair elections
  • Identify challenges facing India’s electoral system and the way forward
💡 The Big Questions
  • What is universal adult franchise?
  • What is an electoral system?
  • How does India’s electoral system work?

Universal Adult Franchise

“[India] adopted the principle of adult franchise with an abundant faith in the common man and the ultimate success of democratic rule…never before in the history of the world has such an experiment been so boldly undertaken.”
– Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, November 1949, Constituent Assembly Debates
Franchise: A right granted by the constitution or government. Another term used is ‘suffrage’ — a synonym of franchise.
Constituency: An area whose voters elect a representative to a legislative body.
System: A group of interconnected or interdependent elements that work together to achieve a common purpose or function.
  • The Constitution makers decided that universal adult franchise would be a feature of Indian democracy right from the outset
  • Every adult citizen gets one vote, and all votes have equal value
  • Every Indian citizen aged 18 and above has the right to vote — irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion, gender, education, income, etc.
  • The word ‘universal’ connotes this principle of equal participation for all
  • Universal franchise is a cornerstone of Indian democracy
  • Elections to the Lok Sabha, the legislative assembly of every state and union territory, and all local elections in villages and cities are based on universal franchise (Article 326 of the Constitution)
  • No one can vote on another’s behalf
  • To exercise the right to vote, a citizen must be registered as a voter in their constituency
  • One is barred from voting if found guilty of committing certain serious crimes
  • In 2024, about 980 million voters were eligible to exercise their franchise for the 543 constituencies of the Lok Sabha
🔍 Let’s Explore
  • India changed the minimum age for voting from 21 to 18 in 1988. Discuss whether this was a good move.
  • Can you calculate how long you have to wait before you can vote?
  • In 1947, India’s literacy rate was about 14 per cent (only about 8 per cent among women). Some argued that the right to vote should be given only to literate people. Discuss in your group why the Constitution makers may have decided on universal franchise from the time of Independence itself.
⭐ Don’t Miss Out
  • India has 3.1 million elected representatives (1.3 million of them women) in more than 250,000 local government bodies across India — all democratically elected through universal adult franchise
  • Before Independence, only 13 per cent of Indians were allowed to vote, and franchise was not universal
  • India was among the early nations to grant women the right to vote, ahead of many others around the world
  • For example, women were given the right to vote in Switzerland only in 1971
  • In India, a progressive constitutional vision and deep democratic values rooted in India’s ancient traditions ensured women had voting rights from the very beginning
🗺️ Fig. 5.4 — Why Universal Adult Franchise?
🗳️ Power to Determine One’s Future
People decide what type of future they want and who can best represent them
⚖️ Everyone is Equal
No discrimination based on caste, creed, sex, education, wealth, etc. — all can participate in deciding the nation’s future
📣 Everyone’s Voice Matters
Elected representatives are answerable to the electorate — people vote them out in elections if they fail
🤝 Fosters Civic Engagement
People participate in solving problems in their area through democratic means

Activity: Add two more reasons of your own — why else is universal adult franchise important?

🧠 Check Your Understanding — Universal Adult Franchise

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. At what age does an Indian citizen get the right to vote? Under which Article of the Constitution is universal franchise guaranteed?

Show Answer
Every Indian citizen aged 18 and above gets the right to vote. Universal adult franchise is guaranteed under Article 326 of the Indian Constitution. This covers elections to the Lok Sabha, state assemblies, and local bodies.
Medium

2. What is the difference between ‘franchise’ and ‘suffrage’? Why is it important that no one can vote on another’s behalf?

Show Answer
Franchise and suffrage are synonyms — both mean the right to vote granted by the constitution or government. It is important that no one votes on another’s behalf because: (1) Each person’s political opinion is unique and personal; (2) Allowing proxy voting would let the powerful control the votes of the weak; (3) Democracy is built on each individual freely expressing their own will — any interference makes the election dishonest and unfair.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. India had a literacy rate of only 14% in 1947, yet the Constitution makers granted universal adult franchise from the start. Do you think this was the right decision? Give two strong reasons to justify your answer.

Show Answer
Yes, this was the right decision because: (1) Democracy is for all citizens, not just the educated — literacy does not determine a person’s wisdom or understanding of their own needs. A poor farmer knows what problems they face better than an educated outsider; (2) Restricting votes to literate people would have excluded millions of poor, marginalised, and women voters, making the government unaccountable to them. True democracy requires equal political rights for all from the very beginning, regardless of education levels.

4. “One person, one vote” is the foundation of universal franchise. How does this principle help challenge social inequalities based on wealth, caste, or gender? Can you think of a real-world example where this principle is not fully followed?

Show Answer
The “one person, one vote” principle challenges inequalities because: (1) A poor farmer’s vote equals a rich person’s vote — wealth cannot buy more votes; (2) A Dalit’s vote equals an upper-caste person’s vote — caste cannot determine political power; (3) A woman’s vote equals a man’s vote — gender cannot restrict political participation. However, in practice, money and caste networks can still indirectly influence how people vote through gifts, threats, or misinformation — showing the principle is not always fully followed in reality. This is why the Model Code of Conduct and voter awareness are so important.

Bridging Barriers, Enabling Participation: Ensuring Universal Franchise

  • Democracy thrives when every eligible citizen can freely and fairly participate in the electoral process
  • Voting in elections is a powerful way for people to express their will
  • India is a large, diverse, and complex country — the eligible voter population is fifteen times the population of the United Kingdom, and India is six times larger than France in area
  • Geographic diversity is a major challenge in organising elections
  • The Election Commission of India (ECI) organises elections and has taken several innovative accessibility measures to ensure no voter is left behind

ECI Accessibility Measures

  • Electoral officials travel to remote locations to ensure every citizen can exercise their democratic right
  • In 2024, for the first time, the elderly and people with disabilities could cast their votes from home
  • The postal voting option was made available for a specific category of voters
  • Assistive technologies provided:
    • Braille-enabled voter cards
    • App-based requests for assistance, including wheelchairs and ramps
  • The ECI even organised a polling station for a single woman voter in a remote area
Indian voters at a polling booth exercising their democratic right

Fig. 5.6 — India’s electoral system endeavours to enable every citizen to exercise their franchise — including polling stations for single voters, postal voting, and wheelchair assistance.

🔍 Let’s Explore
  • About 34 per cent of eligible voters did not exercise their right to vote in the 2024 elections. Why do you think this is so?
  • Design and conduct a short survey among adults in your family and neighbourhood. Analyse the data and write a report with suggestions on how everyone can be encouraged to vote.
  • Discuss in groups: What role do accessibility measures play in a democracy? How can technology assist in increasing voter participation?
  • Visit the ECI website (https://www.eci.gov.in/persons-with-disabilities) — identify the various interventions the ECI has taken to facilitate voting by people with disabilities.
⭐ Don’t Miss Out — Ancient Democratic Traditions
  • The Uttaramerur inscriptions from the 10th century describe a transparent process for the selection of representatives
  • Eligible candidates’ names were written on fragments of palm leaves and placed in a pot, which was then sealed
  • On the selection day, the pot was opened publicly and a young boy drew the palm leaves randomly one by one
  • A respected individual, after showing his empty hands to the public, would read out each name of the selected candidates
  • This shows that transparent democratic practices in India go back over a thousand years

🧠 Check Your Understanding — Bridging Barriers

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. Name two accessibility measures introduced by the ECI to ensure people with disabilities can vote.

Show Answer
Two accessibility measures introduced by the ECI: (1) Braille-enabled voter cards for visually impaired voters; (2) Home voting for the elderly and people with disabilities — introduced for the first time in 2024. Other measures include postal voting, app-based requests for wheelchairs and ramps, and organising polling stations even for a single remote voter.
Medium

2. Why is India’s election management more challenging than that of smaller countries like France or the United Kingdom? Give two specific reasons.

Show Answer
India’s election management is more challenging because: (1) Population — India has about 980 million eligible voters, which is fifteen times the population of the United Kingdom. This requires over 1 million polling stations and massive human and logistical deployment; (2) Area and Geographic Diversity — India is six times larger than France. Organising polling in remote Himalayan villages, dense forests, border areas, and islands requires extraordinary effort. Electoral officials must travel to extremely difficult terrain to ensure every citizen can vote.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. “34% of eligible voters did not vote in 2024.” What does this tell us about voter awareness and civic responsibility? Suggest three concrete steps to improve voter participation in urban areas.

Show Answer
This tells us that voter awareness and civic responsibility are lacking in a significant section of the population, especially in urban areas where people may feel their individual vote does not matter. Three concrete steps to improve voter participation: (1) School and college awareness campaigns — educating young people about their civic duty and the importance of every vote; (2) Declare election day a public holiday or allow flexible voting hours so working people can participate without losing income; (3) Use social media and digital influencers to reach young urban voters with the message that every vote counts and that voter apathy weakens democracy.

4. The Uttaramerur inscriptions describe transparent democratic practices from 10th century India. What values from this ancient system are still relevant in modern elections? How do they compare to today’s ECI processes?

Show Answer
Values from Uttaramerur still relevant today: (1) Transparency — names were drawn publicly with empty hands shown to the audience; today, the ECI uses transparent ballot boxes and public counting with party agents present; (2) Fairness through randomness/merit — palm leaves were drawn randomly to prevent bias; today, NOTA allows voters to reject unsuitable candidates; (3) Public witnessing — the community observed the process; today, polling agents from all parties witness every stage. Key difference: modern elections use universal franchise (everyone votes, not just eligible landowners), electronic technology (EVMs, VVPAT), and a permanent independent constitutional body (ECI) to manage elections at a massive national scale.

Election for Class Representative — Grade 8, Suryodaya School

Three student candidates in a classroom election with teacher supervising and a ballot box

Fig. 5.7 & 5.8 — A classroom election in action: candidates present their ideas while the teacher ensures a fair and transparent process.

📖 The Caselet

  • It was time for the annual election of the Class Representative (Class Rep)
  • The Class Rep would represent the class in meetings with teachers, organise events, and act as a bridge between students and school authorities
  • Three students contested: Ahmed, Gurmat, and Ravi
  • Class teacher Ms. Usha was appointed as the Election Officer to ensure the process was fair, transparent, and followed all necessary rules

The Candidates:

  • Ahmed — promised to improve the cleanliness of the classrooms and the playground
  • Gurmat — proposed creating a system of peer coaching and mutual support to help all classmates learn better
  • Ravi — wanted to make more space in the class timetable for the arts curriculum — music, theatre, and visual art — in line with the new curriculum

Campaigning:

  • Ahmed put up posters
  • Gurmat used the noticeboard and spoke to classmates
  • Ravi held a lunchtime music performance to promote his idea
  • Ms. Usha explained the rules to the class, ensuring everyone understood how the secret ballot voting process would work — no one would know who voted for whom
  • She set up voting booths in the corner of the classroom

Voting Day:

  • Each student was given a ballot paper with the names of the three candidates
  • Students were asked to mark an ‘X’ next to the name of the candidate they wished to vote for
  • Ms. Usha also ensured there was a ballot paper in braille for Neha
  • After all students voted, Ms. Usha collected the ballots in a box and sealed it until the counting session

The Results:

  • After all 33 votes were cast, Ms. Usha called Ms. Sheeba from the next class to witness the counting process
  • One of the ballot papers was not marked — declared invalid
  • Ahmed — 8 votes
  • Gurmat — 12 votes ✅ Winner
  • Ravi — 10 votes
  • Gurmat, with the most votes, was declared the new Class Representative
  • She thanked her classmates and promised to fulfil her commitments
  • Ahmed and Ravi congratulated her and offered to support her
  • Note: Gurmat won with only 12 out of 33 votes — less than 50% — this is the First-Past-the-Post system in action
🔍 Let’s Explore — The Caselet
  • What are the most important aspects of the election process in this caselet?
  • Why was it important to have a secret ballot?
  • What considerations might the students have had while exercising their choice?
  • Do you think the students have any responsibility after Gurmat was elected? If yes, what are they?
  • What was the role that Ms. Usha played? Why was it important?
  • Why was it important for Ms. Usha to organise a braille ballot paper for Neha?
  • What would happen if many students in the class chose not to mark a preference?
⭐ Don’t Miss Out — NOTA
  • Some countries, including India, offer an additional option — NOTA (None Of The Above)
  • This option allows voters to reject all candidates if they are not satisfied with any of them
  • It doesn’t change the result but sends a message — voters want better choices
  • NOTA is a quiet but powerful tool in a democracy

🧠 Check Your Understanding — The Suryodaya School Caselet

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. How many votes did Gurmat receive? How many total votes were cast, and how many were declared invalid?

Show Answer
Gurmat received 12 votes. A total of 33 votes were cast, of which 1 was declared invalid (not marked). So 32 valid votes were counted: Ahmed got 8, Gurmat got 12, and Ravi got 10. Gurmat won as she had the highest number of votes.
Medium

2. Gurmat won with 12 out of 33 votes — less than 50%. What does this tell us about the First-Past-the-Post system? Name one advantage and one disadvantage of this system.

Show Answer
This shows that under the First-Past-the-Post system, a candidate wins by getting the most votes — not necessarily more than 50%. Advantage: It is simple to understand, produces a clear winner quickly, and provides stable government. Disadvantage: The winner may not represent the majority’s preference — in this case, 21 out of 32 students voted for someone other than Gurmat, yet she won. This means a large portion of voters may feel their choice was not represented.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. Ms. Usha ensured a braille ballot paper was available for Neha. How does this action reflect the values of inclusivity and universal franchise? What might have been the consequences if this was not arranged?

Show Answer
This action reflects: (1) Inclusivity — every eligible voter, regardless of ability, has an equal right to participate. The ‘universal’ in universal franchise means truly everyone must be able to vote; (2) Equal treatment — Neha’s right to vote is as important as any other student’s. The Election Officer’s duty is to ensure no one is excluded. Consequences if not arranged: Neha would have been effectively disenfranchised — unable to express her choice. This would have been a failure of the election officer’s duty and a violation of democratic principles. In national elections, the ECI similarly provides braille voter cards, wheelchair access, and home voting to ensure no voter is left behind.

4. Imagine you were one of the students choosing your class rep. What three factors would you consider before deciding who to vote for? How does this decision-making process connect to the responsibilities of a voter in a national election?

Show Answer
Three factors to consider: (1) Credibility and honesty — does the candidate have a record of keeping their promises and showing integrity?; (2) Relevance of their agenda — whose plan actually addresses the real problems faced by the majority of classmates?; (3) Ability to represent everyone — will they listen to all students, or only their close friends? This mirrors national elections: voters must assess a candidate’s track record, their party’s promises, and their ability to represent the whole constituency — not just a narrow group. This is why voter awareness and informed decision-making are so critical in a democracy.

The Role of the Election Commission of India (ECI)

💡 Let’s Remember
  • India is a parliamentary democracy where, at the national level, citizens choose representatives for the Lok Sabha — these focus on issues affecting the entire country
  • Voters also elect representatives from their constituencies to the legislative assemblies in states and union territories — these members focus primarily on regional issues
  • In Grade 6, you read about direct elections to gram panchayats and urban local bodies — the State Election Commissions manage these

Election Commission of India — A Brief Introduction

  • The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting free and fair elections
  • Established in 1950
  • Conducts elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the offices of the President and Vice President
  • The first general elections in independent India were held in 1951–1952
Election Commission of India office building in Delhi

Fig. 5.10 — Office of the Election Commission of India in Delhi

Tasks Performed by the ECI:

🗓️ Setting Election Dates
📋 Registering Political Parties
📜 Enforcing the Model Code of Conduct
🔍 Overseeing the Entire Electoral Process

Structure of the Election Commission of India (Fig. 5.11)

Election Commission of India
🏛️ At National Level

Chief Election Commissioner
+
Two Election Commissioners
🗺️ At State / UT Level

Chief Electoral Officer
🏙️ At District Level

District Election Officer
Chief Election Commissioner oversees the entire national process
Chief Electoral Officer coordinates at state level
▸ Returning Officer (RO)
Conducts elections

▸ Electoral Registration Officer (ERO)
Manages voter list

🧠 Check Your Understanding — ECI Structure

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. When was the Election Commission of India established? Name two types of elections it conducts.

Show Answer
The ECI was established in 1950. It conducts elections to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies (it also conducts Rajya Sabha elections and elections for the offices of President and Vice President).
Medium

2. What is the role of the Returning Officer (RO) and the Electoral Registration Officer (ERO)? How are they different from each other?

Show Answer
The Returning Officer (RO) is responsible for conducting elections at the district/constituency level — overseeing polling and counting. The Electoral Registration Officer (ERO) is responsible for managing the voter list — registering eligible voters and maintaining accurate electoral rolls. The key difference: RO handles the actual conduct of the election, while ERO handles voter registration and the electoral roll before the election even begins.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. Why is it important that the ECI is an independent constitutional body and not under the control of the government in power? What could happen if it were not independent?

Show Answer
It is important because elections decide who holds power — if the ruling government controlled the ECI, it could manipulate election dates, rules, or results to favour itself, destroying the idea of “free and fair” elections. Independence ensures: (1) Neutral enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct on all parties equally, including the ruling party; (2) Trust from citizens and opposition parties that the process is fair; (3) Accountability — the ECI can take action even against powerful leaders. If it were not independent, elections could become a tool for the ruling party to stay in power indefinitely, turning democracy into a façade.

4. The ECI operates at national, state, and district levels. Why do you think such a multi-level structure is necessary for a country like India? What would be the challenges of managing all elections from a single central office?

Show Answer
A multi-level structure is necessary because India has over 1 million polling stations and 980 million voters spread across diverse states, languages, and terrains. Local-level officers understand regional issues, languages, and ground realities better than a distant central office. Challenges of a single central office: (1) Impossible to monitor every booth across the country in real-time; (2) Delays in addressing local complaints or logistical problems (like weather, remote terrain); (3) Lack of local language/cultural understanding leading to errors in voter lists or campaign monitoring; (4) Slower response time during emergencies on polling day.

Managing the Electoral Process

  • Managing elections in India is a mammoth task — the ECI has been upgrading its capacities to keep pace with modern India
  • The Lok Sabha elections illustrate the scale — state assembly elections follow a similar process
  • All elections take place at different times with some periodicity — several polls are conducted every year across the country

Scale of the 2024 Lok Sabha Elections (Fig. 5.12)

🗳️ About
980 Million
Eligible Voters
🏛️ 543
Parliamentary Constituencies
📍 Over
1 Million
Polling Stations
  • Many people are deployed to assist the whole process, including teachers
⭐ Don’t Miss Out — Reserved Constituencies
  • 84 of the 543 Lok Sabha constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC)
  • 47 are reserved for Scheduled Tribes (ST)
  • The remaining 412 are general constituencies
  • This reservation ensures representation for historically marginalised communities in Parliament

Process of Voting for the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies (Fig. 5.13)

1
1st Polling Officer: Checks your name on the voter list and verifies your ID proof
2
2nd Polling Officer: Inks your finger, gives you a chit, and takes your signature
3
3rd Polling Officer: Takes your chit and checks your finger. The NOTA (None Of The Above) option is also available on the ballot
4
Press button to vote on the Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) — you hear a beep sound. Also check the printed slip in the VVPAT
Electronic voting machine EVM and VVPAT unit on a table

Fig. 5.16 — Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) and VVPAT used in Indian elections

🔍 Let’s Explore — EVMs and VVPAT
  • India’s EVMs and VVPAT systems have been used in countries like Namibia and Bhutan with support from the ECI.
  • VVPAT produces a physical paper record, allowing voters to verify that their electronic votes were cast correctly — a backup for verification and recounting in case of disputes.
  • Identify teachers in your school or vicinity who may have performed election duty. Invite them to your class to share their experiences.
⭐ Don’t Miss Out — First Voter of India
  • Shyam Saran Negi, a school teacher in Himachal Pradesh, was the first voter in India’s general elections of 1951
  • In 2017, he cast his vote at the remarkable age of 100 years

Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

📋 What is the Model Code of Conduct?

  • The MCC is a set of guidelines and rules listing the dos and don’ts for leaders, political parties, and candidates that must be adhered to during elections
  • It is followed to ensure free and fair elections
  • The MCC was first adopted in Kerala in 1960, voluntarily approved by representatives of the major political parties of the time
  • The ECI circulated it to political parties during the 1962 general elections
  • From 1991, the ECI became proactive in ensuring observance of the MCC

A Few Elements of the Code:

  • i. There are rules that the party in government must follow — government resources must not be used for election purposes. For example, no new schemes and projects are to be announced that may influence voters
  • ii. All candidates are expected to exercise discretion and restraint to ensure elections take place peacefully
  • iii. Influencing voters through gifts in return for votes is punishable

Examples of MCC Violations:

  • A candidate distributing sarees and household appliances to women voters
  • Abusive language used by the candidate of one party against a candidate from an opposing party
  • Officials of the government campaigning for the ruling party
  • Bundles of currency notes found in the car of a candidate during inspections
⭐ Don’t Miss Out — T.N. Seshan
  • T.N. Seshan became the Chief Election Commissioner in 1990
  • He brought in reforms to ensure free and fair elections:
    • Campaigning to follow precise rules
    • Voter IDs to eliminate proxy voting
    • Strict vigilance on spending by candidates
  • He is often remembered as the officer who made Indian elections fairer, transparent, and fearless
Election control room with officials at computer screens monitoring elections

Fig. 5.14 — Managing elections: extensive use of technology in election control rooms

🔍 Let’s Explore
  • When is the next election in the region where you are located? Is it to the state, urban local body, or panchayat?
  • Look at the four examples of MCC violations shown above. Why do you think each of these might be a violation of the code of conduct?

🧠 Check Your Understanding — Electoral Process & MCC

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. What does VVPAT stand for? What is its purpose in the voting process?

Show Answer
VVPAT stands for Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail. Its purpose is to produce a physical paper record of the vote cast on the EVM, allowing the voter to verify their vote was recorded correctly. It also serves as a backup for verification and recounting in case of disputes or technical failures.
Medium

2. What is the Model Code of Conduct? Name three rules that candidates and political parties must follow under it.

Show Answer
The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a set of guidelines listing the dos and don’ts for leaders, parties, and candidates during elections to ensure they are free and fair. Three rules: (1) The ruling government cannot announce new schemes or projects that may influence voters; (2) Candidates must exercise discretion and restraint for peaceful elections; (3) Influencing voters through gifts in exchange for votes is punishable.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. T.N. Seshan is credited with making Indian elections “fairer, transparent, and fearless.” Why is it important for a constitutional authority like the ECI to be proactive rather than passive? Give two examples from the chapter to support your answer.

Show Answer
A proactive ECI is important because rules alone are not enough — they must be actively enforced to have real impact, especially against powerful politicians who might otherwise ignore them. Examples from the chapter: (1) T.N. Seshan introduced voter IDs to eliminate proxy voting and enforced strict vigilance on candidate spending — these were active interventions, not just passive rule-making; (2) The MCC existed since 1960 but the ECI only became proactive in enforcing it from 1991 — showing that having a rule “on paper” is different from actively making sure it is followed. Proactive enforcement builds public trust and deters violations.

4. The MCC prevents the ruling party from announcing new schemes during election season. Do you think this is a fair restriction? Who does it protect and why? Could this rule ever be misused?

Show Answer
Yes, this is a fair restriction because it prevents the ruling party from misusing government resources and power to gain an unfair advantage over opposition parties just before elections, when voters are most influenced. It protects: (1) Opposition parties, who don’t have access to government resources, ensuring a level playing field; (2) Voters, by ensuring decisions are made on genuine governance needs, not vote-bank politics. Possible misuse: The rule could be misused to delay genuinely urgent and necessary welfare schemes (like disaster relief) simply because they coincide with an election period — this is why the ECI must use judgment in applying the rule rather than a blanket ban.

Understanding Elections in India — A Very Brief Overview

Election to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies

  • Elections in India are often referred to as the ‘Festival of Democracy’
  • India follows a parliamentary system of government with various levels of elections — Lok Sabha (national), State Legislative Assemblies (state), and local bodies (city/village)
  • The country is divided into 543 constituencies for Lok Sabha elections
  • Elected candidates to the Lok Sabha are known as Members of Parliament (MPs)
  • Candidates elected to state assemblies are known as Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs)
  • India uses the ‘First-Past-the-Post’ electoral system — the candidate receiving the most votes in a constituency wins
  • A candidate can win without securing even 50% of the total votes (like Gurmat won with only 12 out of 33 votes)
Coalition: A group of two or more parties working together to form a government when no single party wins an outright majority.
Dissolution: Expiry or termination of a legislative body due to the end of its term or other Constitutional reason.

🏛️ Members of Parliament (MPs)

  • Represent the nation in the Lok Sabha
  • Chosen by direct elections
  • Focus on national issues
  • 543 MPs in Lok Sabha

🗺️ Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs)

  • Represent constituencies in state assemblies
  • Chosen by direct elections
  • Focus on state/regional issues
  • Numbers vary by state

Formation of Government:

  • The political party or coalition winning a majority of seats in the Lok Sabha forms the national government
  • The leader of this majority typically becomes the Prime Minister
  • Similarly, at the state level, the leader of the majority party becomes the Chief Minister
⭐ Don’t Miss Out
  • The legislative assembly is called by several names in regional languages — for example, Vidhan Sabha and Niyama Sabha
  • The State Election Commission plays an important role not only in general and state elections but also in conducting elections to local bodies at the grassroots level, working in consultation with the ECI
🔍 Let’s Explore
  • Who are the MP and MLA/MLAs of the constituency you are located in?
  • Which party does each of them belong to?
  • What are the concerns of the MP and MLA, respectively?

🧠 Check Your Understanding — Lok Sabha Elections

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. What is the ‘First-Past-the-Post’ system? How many constituencies does India have for Lok Sabha elections?

Show Answer
The First-Past-the-Post system is an electoral system in which the candidate who receives the most votes in a constituency wins — even if they do not get more than 50% of the total votes. India has 543 constituencies for Lok Sabha elections.
Medium

2. What is the difference between an MP and an MLA? At which level does each work?

Show Answer
An MP (Member of Parliament) is elected to the Lok Sabha and represents the country at the national level, focusing on issues affecting the entire nation. An MLA (Member of Legislative Assembly) is elected to a State Legislative Assembly and represents their constituency at the state level, focusing primarily on regional/state issues. Both are chosen through direct elections by the people, but they work at different levels of governance.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. In the First-Past-the-Post system, a candidate can win without getting 50% of the votes. Do you think this is truly democratic? What might be a fairer alternative, and what trade-offs would it involve?

Show Answer
This is a debatable issue. Arguments for it being democratic: it produces clear, decisive results and stable governments, and is simple for voters to understand. Arguments against: a candidate can win even when the majority of voters did not want them, meaning many voters’ preferences are not reflected in the outcome. A fairer alternative could be a system requiring a runoff between the top two candidates if no one gets 50% (like in some countries), or proportional representation, where parties get seats based on the overall vote share. Trade-off: these alternatives can be more complex, take longer to produce results, and sometimes lead to unstable coalition governments — which is why India has stuck with First-Past-the-Post for simplicity and stability.

4. “Elections are the Festival of Democracy.” Do you agree? What responsibilities does this festival place on (a) voters, (b) candidates, and (c) the Election Commission? Use examples from the chapter to support your answer.

Show Answer
Yes, elections can rightly be called a “Festival of Democracy” because they involve mass participation, enthusiasm, and the celebration of citizens’ rights. Responsibilities: (a) Voters — must vote responsibly and thoughtfully, after evaluating candidates carefully, and must actually turn out to vote (recall that 34% did not vote in 2024); (b) Candidates — must follow the Model Code of Conduct, campaign fairly without using money or abusive language, and represent the genuine concerns of their constituency; (c) Election Commission — must ensure the process is free, fair, and accessible to all, as seen through measures like braille ballots, home voting, and reserved constituencies for SC/ST representation. Only when all three groups fulfil their responsibilities does the “festival” truly strengthen democracy.

Election to the Rajya Sabha

🏛️ Rajya Sabha — The Council of States

  • Rajya Sabha members are also known as Members of Parliament (MPs) but are chosen through indirect elections
  • Total members: 245
    • 233 are elected by the elected members of state legislative assemblies (MLAs) through the single transferable vote system
    • 12 are nominated by the President of India
  • Each state is allotted a different number of Rajya Sabha seats based on population
  • The Rajya Sabha is called the Permanent House — it is never dissolved
  • A member of the Rajya Sabha has a six-year term
  • One-third of its members retire every two years, ensuring continuity
  • It uses the ‘single transferable vote system’ — ensuring smaller states get fair representation
Rajya Sabha chamber interior in the Indian Parliament

Fig. 5.23 — Rajya Sabha: The Council of States — a permanent body where one-third of members retire every two years

🏛️ Lok Sabha

  • Direct election by the people
  • 543 members
  • Term: 5 years
  • Can be dissolved
  • First-Past-the-Post system

🏛️ Rajya Sabha

  • Indirect election by MLAs + 12 nominated
  • 245 members
  • Term: 6 years (staggered)
  • Never dissolved
  • Single transferable vote system

Election of the President of India

🗳️ How is the President Elected?

  • The President is not directly elected by the common people
  • An Electoral College is formed to carry out the election, consisting of:
    • MPs from both houses — Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
    • MLAs from each of India’s states and the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry
  • The single transferable vote system is followed
  • More populous states have a greater say

Who is NOT involved in electing the President?

  • Nominated members of Rajya Sabha (12)
  • Nominated members of State Legislative Assemblies
  • Members of Legislative Councils (both elected and nominated) in bicameral legislatures
  • Nominated members of union territories of Delhi and Puducherry
Bicameral Legislature: A system where the legislative body is divided into two separate chambers or houses.
💡 Think About It
  • Why are nominated members not involved in electing the President of India?
  • It is because this ensures that only directly elected representatives vote to elect the President — maintaining democratic legitimacy, as the President is meant to represent the will of the people, indirectly but meaningfully

Election of the Vice President of India

  • The Vice President is elected by an electoral college of the elected and nominated members of both Houses of Parliament
  • The single transferable vote system is used
  • The Vice President is the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha
  • If the President cannot discharge their functions, the Vice President steps in

🧠 Check Your Understanding — Rajya Sabha, President & VP

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. How many members does the Rajya Sabha have? Who nominates 12 of them?

Show Answer
The Rajya Sabha has 245 members. Of these, 233 are elected by state MLAs, and 12 are nominated by the President of India.
Medium

2. What is an Electoral College? Who forms the Electoral College for the election of the President of India?

Show Answer
An Electoral College is a body of elected representatives formed specifically to carry out an indirect election (instead of citizens voting directly). For the President of India, the Electoral College consists of: (1) elected MPs from both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha; (2) elected MLAs from each state and the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. The President is elected indirectly while the Prime Minister is chosen through direct elections. What does this difference tell us about the roles each plays in the Indian democratic system? Which role do you think carries more actual governing power and why?

Show Answer
This difference reflects that the President is largely a ceremonial/constitutional head, representing the unity of the nation, while the Prime Minister is the real executive head who runs the day-to-day government. The Prime Minister is (indirectly, through MPs from their winning party/coalition) chosen by the people’s direct vote in the Lok Sabha elections, giving them a stronger democratic mandate to govern. The Prime Minister holds more actual governing power because they lead the Council of Ministers, set policy, and are directly answerable to Parliament and the electorate, whereas the President mostly acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers in routine matters.

4. Why do you think nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are excluded from voting in the Presidential election? What principle of democratic legitimacy does this uphold? Can you think of any potential unfairness in this exclusion?

Show Answer
Nominated members are excluded because they were not directly elected by the people — they were appointed based on their distinguished contributions in fields like art, literature, science, or social service. Allowing them to vote for the President would mean someone with no direct mandate from voters is influencing who becomes the head of state, weakening democratic legitimacy. This upholds the principle that only those who derive their authority from the people’s vote should participate in choosing the President. Potential unfairness: nominated members may be highly knowledgeable and capable individuals whose expertise and judgment are excluded purely on a technicality, even though they may have valuable insight into who would serve the country well as President.

Challenges and The Road Ahead

  • India’s electoral system is celebrated as the world’s largest democratic exercise
  • However, it faces challenges:
    • Growing influence of money in elections
    • A significant proportion of candidates with criminal records
    • Voter apathy, particularly in urban areas
  • The way forward lies in empowering voters with the information they need to make thoughtful and responsible choices
  • Media, education, and awareness campaigns must work together to help people — especially the youth — understand the importance of voting wisely
  • An aware and vigilant voter is the strongest safeguard of a democratic system

📌 Before We Move On…

  • Universal adult franchise is the cornerstone of Indian democracy
  • The right to vote is a responsibility, too — voter awareness is important
  • It is important to facilitate the participation of all eligible voters
  • The Election Commission of India is the Constitutional body that conducts elections in the country
  • The ECI oversees all elections, including those of the President and Vice President
  • Indian democracy faces challenges that call for voters’ vigilance and awareness

📝 Questions and Activities

  1. Why is universal adult franchise important for a healthy democracy?
  2. What is the meaning of ‘secret ballot’? Why is this important in a democracy?
  3. Give examples of direct and indirect elections.
  4. How is the election of members to the Lok Sabha different from that to the Rajya Sabha?
  5. What, in your view, are the advantages of the EVM over paper ballots?
  6. Voter turnout has been declining in some urban areas of India. What could be the reasons for this trend, and what steps can be taken to encourage more people to vote?
  7. Why do you think a proportion of seats in the Lok Sabha is reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes? Write a short note.
  8. Social media is changing the way we experience elections — from catchy campaign reels and live speeches to political debates on Instagram and Twitter. But is this strengthening democracy or confusing it? Discuss in pairs: What are the benefits, what are the challenges, and what might the future of elections be in a digital age?
  9. Visit the website https://www.indiavotes.com, and choose a parliamentary constituency election from any year and explore its results. Do the same for an assembly election in your state.

🧠 Final Review — Challenges & The Big Picture

LOTS (Lower Order Thinking)

1. Name three challenges facing India’s electoral system as mentioned in the chapter.

Show Answer
Three challenges: (1) The growing influence of money in elections; (2) A significant proportion of candidates with criminal records; (3) Voter apathy, particularly in urban areas.
Medium

2. What does the chapter suggest as the way forward for strengthening India’s democracy? Who are the key groups mentioned?

Show Answer
The chapter suggests empowering voters with information to make thoughtful, responsible choices. The key groups mentioned are media, education (schools), and awareness campaigns, which must work together to help people — especially the youth — understand the importance of voting wisely.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking)

3. “An aware and vigilant voter is the strongest safeguard of a democratic system.” Do you agree with this statement? What specific actions can a Class 8 student take today to become a more informed future voter?

Show Answer
Yes, this statement is largely true — laws and institutions like the ECI can only do so much; ultimately, voters who carefully evaluate candidates and refuse to be influenced by money or false promises are what keep a democracy healthy. Specific actions a Class 8 student can take: (1) Stay informed by reading newspapers or watching credible news about current affairs and government policies; (2) Participate in school elections and debates to practise democratic decision-making, as seen in the Suryodaya School caselet; (3) Discuss issues with family and encourage first-time voters in the family to register and vote responsibly when they turn 18.

4. Design a one-page awareness campaign poster (describe it in words) aimed at convincing youth in urban areas to vote in the next election. What key message would you use, and which facts from this chapter would you highlight?

Show Answer
Sample poster concept: Headline: “Your Vote, Your Voice, Your Future!” Key message: Every vote counts — don’t let others decide your future for you. Facts to highlight: (1) “34% of eligible voters didn’t vote in 2024 — don’t be part of that statistic”; (2) The story of Shyam Saran Negi, who voted at age 100, to show that voting is a privilege worth valuing; (3) A simple visual reminder that India is the world’s largest democracy, and low youth turnout in cities weakens its strength. Call to action: “Register. Show up. Vote.” with QR code linking to voter registration.