🏛️ The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

The 18th Lok Sabha was constituted in June 2024. There have been 17 Lok Sabhas since the first one was formed in 1952, making the 18th the most recent.

It means the government derives its authority and legitimacy directly from the citizens who elected it — it cannot rule arbitrarily because its power comes from the people. Universal adult franchise connects directly: because every adult citizen (18+) can vote regardless of background, gender, race or religion, every citizen has a voice in choosing who governs them. This makes the government’s authority a reflection of the people’s collective consent, rather than something imposed on them.

While the government (Executive) is drawn from the majority in Parliament, the Parliament as a whole — including the opposition — still exercises oversight through tools like the Question Hour, parliamentary committees, and debates. Even majority MPs can hold ministers accountable, and all bills must pass through Parliament, allowing debate and amendment. The conflict of interest is managed by parliamentary procedures, transparency requirements, and the threat of losing the next election — but this self-checking works best when the opposition is strong and the media and citizens stay engaged.

It is foundational because it is the source of legitimacy for the entire system — without it, no other democratic structure (Parliament, elections, accountability) would have meaning, since those in power would not genuinely represent the people. It ensures everyone’s voice counts equally, regardless of wealth, caste, gender or education. Without it, Indian democracy would resemble the pre-Independence period, where only 13% could vote — meaning decisions would be made by and for a small privileged class while the majority had no say.

‘Bicameral’ means having two houses or chambers (‘bi’ = two, ‘cameral’ = chamber). The two houses are the Lok Sabha (House of the People / Lower House) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States / Upper House).

The Lok Sabha is presided over by the Speaker, elected by the members of the Lok Sabha itself. The Rajya Sabha is presided over by the Vice President of India, who holds this role by virtue of being Vice President (chosen through a separate national-level indirect election), not elected specifically by Rajya Sabha members.

In the Lok Sabha, seats are allocated by population — so larger states like Uttar Pradesh have far more MPs than smaller states like Sikkim, meaning bigger states could dominate if there were only one house. The Rajya Sabha gives every state a continuing voice through its MLAs’ indirect elections and, crucially, is a permanent body that cannot be dissolved — providing a stable, deliberative check on hasty decisions by the directly-elected Lok Sabha. This reflects the federal principle that regional interests should not be completely overridden by population numbers.

Receiving the Sengol at Independence connected India’s new democratic leadership to an ancient Indian tradition of just governance. Placing it in today’s Lok Sabha (rather than a museum) keeps this reminder actively present for lawmakers — a daily, visible symbol urging elected representatives to govern with integrity and accountability, rather than treating it as a historical relic disconnected from present-day governance.

The RTE Bill was first tabled in the Rajya Sabha. It became an Act in August 2009, after being passed in the Lok Sabha and receiving the President’s assent.

A bill is a draft of a proposed law that has not yet been approved — still under discussion, and can be amended or rejected. An act is the final, legally binding law. A bill officially becomes an act after it is passed by both Houses of Parliament and receives the President’s assent — after this it is published in the Gazette, making it official.

It shows that having a constitutional ideal does not automatically guarantee swift implementation — practical challenges like funding (schools, teachers, infrastructure for millions of children) can delay even widely supported goals for decades. It also shows the role of the judiciary — only after courts linked education to the Fundamental Right to Life in the 1990s did Parliament act through the 86th Amendment in 2002. Constitutional principles, judicial interpretation and parliamentary will must all align before a law comes into force — and the process, while thorough, can be slow.

Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha because its members are directly elected by the people, making it more directly answerable to citizens about how their tax money is raised and spent. This reflects “no taxation without direct representation” — financial matters affecting every citizen should be controlled by those the people themselves elected, not by an indirectly elected body like the Rajya Sabha. On financial matters specifically, the Lok Sabha holds greater power than the Rajya Sabha.

The Question Hour is a period, typically the first hour of a Parliamentary session, where MPs can ask ministers questions about government policies and activities. It holds the Executive (ministers and the government) accountable, requiring them to justify their actions and decisions.

The nominal head is the official Head of State who holds the position formally but does not run day-to-day affairs — this is the President. The de facto (actual/real) executive authority genuinely makes governing decisions and runs the country — this is the Prime Minister, who leads the Council of Ministers and shapes national policy.

It illustrates the principle of “ministerial responsibility” — a minister is morally and politically responsible for everything within their ministry, even if they did not personally cause the failure. This is important because it ensures accountability flows all the way up to the person in charge, preventing ministers from avoiding responsibility by blaming subordinates. It builds public trust that those in power take their duties seriously — strengthening the culture of accountability a healthy democracy depends on.

Strength: Because ministers are also MPs, they remain directly accountable to Parliament (and ultimately voters) for their executive actions — the government cannot govern in isolation from elected representatives’ scrutiny, unlike in a fully separated presidential system. Weakness: Since the Executive is drawn from the majority party, that same majority may be reluctant to seriously challenge “their own” ministers, especially when party discipline (the “whip”) requires MPs to vote along party lines. This can weaken independent oversight, making the system rely on a strong opposition and free press for genuine accountability.

At the Union level, the equivalent of the Vidhan Sabha is the Lok Sabha (Lower House), and the equivalent of the Vidhan Parishad is the Rajya Sabha (Upper House).

The Concurrent List contains subjects on which both the Union and State governments can make laws. An example is education (as seen with the RTE Act). If the Union legislates on a Concurrent List subject, the state government is bound to follow the Union law — meaning the Union’s law takes precedence in case of conflict, even though states normally also have law-making power on that subject.

Self-policing creates a conflict of interest — if the Legislature or Executive could decide for themselves whether their own actions were constitutional, they would have every incentive to rule in their own favour, undermining the rule of law. An independent Judiciary, with no political stake in the outcome, can interpret the Constitution impartially and strike down laws or actions that violate it. This ensures a genuine system of checks and balances, where no single branch becomes too powerful or escapes accountability — protecting citizens’ rights even against the government itself.

Advantages: A Vidhan Parishad provides a more deliberative, less politically volatile space for reviewing legislation, bringing in experienced individuals (sometimes nominated for expertise in fields like literature, science or social service) who might not win direct elections; it acts as a check against hasty decisions by the directly-elected Vidhan Sabha. Disadvantages: It adds cost and complexity, can be used to accommodate politicians who lost direct elections (raising legitimacy questions), and may slow lawmaking. This is likely why most states use a simpler unicameral system.

The three sessions are the Budget Session, Monsoon Session, and Winter Session. Parliament typically sits for 6 hours a day during sessions, though this can be extended for urgent business.

Three challenges: (1) regular absenteeism; (2) non-cooperative/disruptive conduct; (3) disruptions of the Question Hour, which reduces executive accountability. Declining productivity means fewer hours are actually spent debating bills and policies versus scheduled time — as in the Rajya Sabha example, productivity fell from 78% (2004–14) to 65%, with some sessions as low as 6.80%. This means less time for thoughtful lawmaking and oversight, weakening the quality of governance.

It can seriously undermine public trust, since lawmakers are expected to uphold and create laws yet some face legal scrutiny — creating a perception that the system tolerates questionable conduct. Voters can address it by: (1) researching candidates’ backgrounds (criminal records are publicly disclosed during nominations); (2) choosing not to vote for candidates with serious charges, even from a preferred party; (3) demanding transparency from parties in selecting candidates. This connects to the importance of an informed and vigilant voter.

Vajpayee’s statement stresses that democratic institutions and values are larger than any single government or party — power is temporary, but the systems of accountability must stay strong. This relates to checks and balances: if one institution or party disrupts the functioning of others for political gain, democracy’s long-term health suffers. Parliamentary disruptions threaten this because when debates are blocked or sessions cut short, the Legislature fails in its core duty of scrutinising the Executive and making thoughtful laws — so checks and balances break down in practice, which is why citizen awareness and engagement are essential.